Electromagnetic Transient Modeling and Simulation of Inverter-Based Black Start: A Comprehensive Review of Grid-Forming Control, Current Limiting, and System Restoration Dynamics

Abstract—The accelerating integration of inverter-based re
sources (IBRs)—including battery energy storage systems
(BESS), photovoltaics (PV), and variable-speed wind turbines—
into modern power systems has created a compelling impetus
to re-examine conventional black-start and system restoration
paradigms. Traditional black-start capability has been exclusively
provided by synchronous generator-based power plants, whose
inherent short-circuit current capacity (6–8 p.u.), electromagnetic
inertia, and well-characterised electromechanical dynamics facil
itated robust sequential network energisation. IBRs, by contrast,
present sharply limited overcurrent capability (typically 1.1
1.5 p.u.), possess no physical inertia, and require advanced grid
forming (GFM) control architectures to autonomously establish
and sustain terminal voltage on a de-energised network. This
paper provides a systematic and critical review of electro
magnetic transient (EMT) modelling frameworks, simulation
methodologies, mathematical control formulations, and transient
phenomena pertinent to IBR-driven black start. Key topics
include droop-based GFM control with integrated negative
sequence voltage compensation, phase-by-phase current limiting
in the abc frame, transformer inrush mitigation via voltage-ramp
soft-start, induction motor starting dynamics under constrained
IBR current, collective parallel GFM operation without leader
follower communication, GFL DER cooperative restoration, and
VSC-HVDC black-start control modes.
Index Terms—Black start, electromagnetic transient (EMT)
simulation, grid-forming (GFM) inverter, inverter-based re
sources (IBR), negative-sequence control, phase current limiter,
droop control, VSC-HVDC, transformer inrush, induction motor
starting, system restoration, microgrid.